Many
scientist have used the knowledge of forensic
medicine to determine the characteristics
and cause of dead of the man od the Shroud.
Here, we show you some of the data published
in "The Authentication of the Turin
Shroud: An Issue in Archaeological Epistemology
by William Meacham. Current Antropology-
Vol. 24 - N° 3 - (June 1983). Published
by the University of Chicago Press".
Although there is not general
agreement among the scholars about all the
details presented in this article, we think
it is a good guide to approach the issue.
"The
body was that of an adult male, nude, with
beard, mustache, and long hair falling to
the shoulders and drawn at the back into
a pigtail (today
there are serious doubts about this last
assertion). Height is estimated
at between 5 ft. 9 in. and 5 ft. 11 in.
(175-180 cm), weight at 165-180 lb. (75-81
kg), and age at 30 to 45 years. The body
is well proportioned and muscular, with
no observable defects. Death had occurred
several hours before the deposition of the
corpse, which was laid out on half of the
Shroud, the other half then being drawn
over the head to cover the body. It is clear
that the cloth was in contact with the body
for at least a few hours, but not more than
two to three days, assuming that decomposition
was progressing at the normal rate. Both
frontal and dorsal images have the marks
of many small drops of a postmortem serous
fluid exuded from the pores. There is, however,
no evidence of initial decomposition of
the body, no issue of fluids from the orifices,
and no decline of rigor mortis leading to
flattening of the back and blurred or double
imprints.
Rigor
mortis is seen in the stiffness of the extremities,
the retraction of the thumbs (discussed
below), and the distention of the feet.
It has frozen an attitude of death while
hanging by the arms; the rib cage is abnormally
expanded, the large pectoral muscles are
in an attitude of extreme inspiration (enlarged
and drawn up toward the collarbone and arms),
the lower abdomen is distended, and the
epigastric hollow is drawn in sharply. The
protrusion of the femoral quadriceps and
hip muscles is consistent with slow death
by hanging, during which the victim must
raise his body by exertion of the legs in
order to exhale.
The
evidence of death in a position of suspension
by the arms coupled with the characteristic
wounds and blood flows indicate that the individual
had been crucified. The rigor mortis position
of outstretched arms would have had to be broken
in order to cross the hands at the pelvis for
burial, and a probable result is seen in the
slight dislocation of the right elbow and shoulder.
The feet indicate something of their original
positioning on the cross, the left being placed
on the instep of the right with a single nail
impaling both. Apparently there was some flexion
of the left knee to achieve this position, leaving
the left foot somewhat higher than the right.
Two theories, each supported by experimental
or wartime observations, contend as regards
cause of death: asphyxiation due to muscular
spasm, progressive rigidity, and inability to
exhale (Barbet, Hynek, Bucklin) or circulatory
failure from lowering of blood pressure and
pooling of blood in the lower extremities (Moedder,
Willis).
Of
greatest interest and importance are the wounds.
As with the general anatomy of the image, the
wounds, blood flows, and the stains themselves
appear to forensic pathologists flawless and
unfakeable. "Each of the different wounds
acted in a characteristic fashion. Each bled
in a manner which corresponded to the nature
of the injury. The blood followed gravity in
every instance" (Bucklin 1961:5). The bloodstains
are perfect, bordered pictures of blood clots,
with a concentration of red corpuscles around
the edge of the clot and a tiny area of serum
inside.
Around the upper scalp and
extending to its vertex are at least 30 blood
flows from spike punctures. These wounds exhibit
the same realism as those of the hand and feet:
the bleeding is highly characteristic of scalp
wounds with the retraction of torn vessels,
the blood meets obstructions as it flows and
pools on the forehead and hair, and there appears
to be swelling around the points of laceration.
Several clots have the distinctive characteristics
of either venous or arterial blood, as seen
in the density, uniformity, or modality of coagulation
(Rodante).
Legs
and right foot
Posterior
part of the head and front
The
body is peppered with marks of a severe flogging
estimated at between 60 and 120 lashes of a whip
with two or three studs at the thong end. Each
contusion is about 3.7 cm long, and these are
found on both sides of the body from the shoulders
to the calves, with only the arms spared.
Detail
of the marks in the back. These wounds have
the exact size and form of those that would
be produced by the Flagrum taxillatum,
a roman whip not used in the Middle Ages. Click
on the image to visualize the whip wounds on
the body.
Superimposed
on the marks of flogging on the right shoulder
and left scapular region are two broad excoriated
areas, generally considered to have resulted
from friction or pressure from a flat surface,
as from carrying the crossbar or writhing
on the cross.
The
wounds of the crucifixion itself are seen
in the blood flows from the wrists and feet.
One of the most interesting features of the
Shroud is that the nail wounds are in the
wrists, not in the palm as traditionally depicted
in art. Experimenting with cadavers and amputated
arms, Barbet demonstrated that nailing at
the point indicated on the Shroud image, the
so-called space of Destot between the bones
of the wrist, allowed the body weight to be
supported, where-as the palm would tear away
from the nail under a fraction of the body
weight. Sava holds that the wristbones and
tendons would be severely damaged by nailing
and that the Shroud figure was nailed through
the wrist end of the forearm, but most medical
opinion concurs in siting the nailing at the
wrist. Barbet also observed that the median
nerve was invariably injured by the nail,
causing the thumb to retract into the palm.
Neither thumb is visible on the Shroud, their
position in the palm presumably being retained
by rigor mortis. (There
are many opinions about this issue, certainly
we see the exit wound of the nail around the
wrist area but we do not know where the entry
wound is located)
Detail
of wound in left hand and blood in the arms
The
blood flow from the wrists trails down the
forearms at two angles, roughly 55° and
65° from the axis of the arm, thus allowing
the crucifixion position of the arms to be
reconstructed. It is generally agreed that
the separate flows from the left wrist and
the interrupted streams along the length of
the arm are due to slightly different positions
assumed by the body on the cross. This seesaw
motion is interpreted as necessary simply
in order to breathe or as an attempt to relieve
the pain in the wrists (the median nerve is
also sensory and pain from injuries to it
excruciating). A postmortem blood flow with
separation of serum is seen around the left
wrist and more copiously at the feet, presumably
from the removal of the nails. (There
is a more simple explanation accounting for
this blood flow: the flow by gravity of postmortem
blood once the body was laid down and the
hands were crossedover the pelvis).
Right
foot
Between
the fifth and sixth ribs on the right side
is an oval puncture about 4.4 X 1.1 cm. Blood
has flowed down from this wound and also onto
the lower back, indicating a second outflow
when the body was moved to a horizontal position.
All authorities agree that this wound was
inflicted after death, judging from the small
quantity of blood issued, the separation of
clot and serum, the lack of swelling, and
the deeper color and more viscous consistency
of the blood. Stains of a body fluid are intermingled
with the blood, and numerous theories have
been offered as to its origin: pericardial
fluid (Judica, Barbet), fluid from the pleural
sac (Moedder), or serous fluid from settled
blood in the pleural cavity (Saval, Bucklin).
Side
wound (curiously with the same dimensions
of a roman lancet) (click
to visualize) and dorsal part of the
body where the second outflow generated as the
body was moved to a horizontal position can
be seen.
Also
discernible are a number of facial wounds,
listed by Willis as swelling of both eyebrows,
torn right eyelid, large swelling below right
eye, swollen nose, bruise on right cheek,
swelling in left cheek and left side of chin.
So
convincing was the realism of these wounds and
their association with the biblical accounts
that Delage, an agnostic, declared them "a
bundle of imposing probabilities" and concluded
that the Shroud figure was indeed Christ. His
assistant, Vignon (1937), declared the Shroud's
identification to be "as sure as a photograph
or set of fingerprints."
Taking
into account all these data and even considering
that different opinions exist among scholars
about particular details, it is not difficult
to draw the following conclusion: The
Shroud of Turin wrapped a real man that was
tortured and suffered dead by crucifixion.
There
is not other explanation.
Of
the same opinion were Pierre Barbet (surgeon
at Hospital of Paris), Giovanni Judica Cordiglia
(Professor of Legal Medicine at the University
of Milan), Robert Bucklin (Pathologist, Los
Angeles Hospital, California), Rudolf W. Hynek
(Medicine Academy of Prague) and Pier Luigi
Baima Bollone (Professor of Legal Medicine at
the University of Turin).
No
artist could have reproduced all these details
in the Middle Ages, when it was unknown, for
example, the existence of two types of blood,
the accumulation of bilirubin in tortured bodies
or the details about blood circulation.
On
the other hand, it seems improbable that somebody
could have produced in that time the very unpopular
image of a Jesus naked and with wounds in the
wrists instead of in the hands as the image
of the crucified Christ has been traditionally
depicted.
